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Ageism is the stereotyping or discrimination of a person or group of people because of their age.
Defining Ageism
Since the inception of the term (Butler, 1969), the concept of ageism has been applied to a myriad of contexts, which can be looked at broadly and narrowly, depending on the concern (Bytheway, 2005). Butler’s general definition of ageism references it as stereotyping and discriminating specifically against the old (Butler, 1995). The Gray Panthers’ founder, Maggie Kuhn, envisioned the concept of ageism as an opportunity for both older adults and youth to bond over a common concern. Her definition included both ends of the age spectrum, proposing that a young person can be discriminated against because of their age in the same way as an older person (Bytheway, 2005).
Negative, Elder-centric Ageism
Some academics extend the discussion of ageism even further. Palmore asserts that ageism is “any prejudice or discrimination against or in favor of any age group,” opening the concept to multiple perceptions and interpretations (Palmore, 1999). This approach of including positive and negative ageism gives credence to the notion that ageism has an impact in both directions. It logically follows that if a force such as negative ageism can have a detrimental impact then its opposite, positive ageism, may have a beneficial one. Many of the studies referenced in this website address the effects of both positive and negative ageism. Measuring the product of both types of ageism gives insight into the mechanisms by with ageism operates. The tendency of some researchers, Levy in particular, is to emphasize the power of positive age priming because it gives insight into ways of counteracting negative ageism’s impact. Nonetheless, without diminishing the importance and potential effect of positive ageism or that experienced by youth, this website focuses on demonstrating the negative implications of ageism. Thus, unless otherwise noted, “ageism” references solely negative ageist attitudes and their outcomes on older adults. The limited scope of this working definition is not intended to diminish the importance and potential impact of positive ageism or that experienced by youth. It is only meant to simplify the course of this discussion.
Further Reading:
Ageism Definitions
Implicit Ageism and Explicit Ageism
Embodied Ageism
Theories of Ageism
Ecosocial Levels of Analysis of Ageism
Stereotype Embodiment
Stereotype Threat
Works Cited:
Butler, R. (1995). Ageism. In G. Maddox, The Encyclopedia of Aging. New York, NY: Springer.
Butler, R. (1969). Age-ism: Another form of bigotry. The Gerontologist , 9, 243-246.
Bytheway, B. (2005). Ageism. In M. Johnson, The Cambridge Handbook of Age and Ageing (pp. 338-339). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Palmore, E. (1999). Ageism Negative and Positive (second ed.). New York, NY: Springer.
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There are four ecosocial levels of analysis that can be applied to ageist manifestation in society. From a macro, meso, micro and individual level, these ageist categories are: structural, institutional, interpersonal and embodied ageism. Nancy Krieger (1999, p. 301) offers some excellent and succinct definitions of structural, institutional and interpersonal discrimination, which apply well to ageism. Structural ageism, also known as “systemic ageism” is the “totality of ways in which societies foster discrimination” against older adults. A subset of structural ageism, cultural ageism, encompasses ageist media messages, commentary, humor and other cultural facets wherein ageist perspectives are accepted as de facto truths (Palmore, 2005, p. 333). Institutional ageism, or “organizational ageism” refers to “discriminatory policies or practices carried out by state or non-state institutions” that are detrimental to older adults. Interpersonal ageism, or “institutional ageism” refers to “directly perceived discriminatory interactions between individuals.”
The last level of analysis, the individual, relates to embodied ageism. This is a relatively new concept and, as such, requires further background information. Read about embodied ageism here.
Further Reading
Embodied Ageism
Example of Structural Ageism (in development)
Example of Institutional Ageism (in development)
Example of Interpersonal Ageism (in development)
Examples of Embodied Ageism (in development)
Works Cited
Krieger, N. (1999). Embodying Inequality: A Review of Concepts Measures, and Methods for Studying Health Consequences of Discrimination. International Journal of Health Services , 29 (2), 295-352.
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Stereotype embodiment theory states “stereotypes are embodied when their assimilation from the surrounding culture leads to self-definitions that, in turn, influence functioning and health” (Levy, 2009). When internalized, implicit ageism impacts an older adult’s physical being, the person lives in a condition of stereotype embodiment known as embodied ageism. Levy’s approach narrows the overall discrimination theory of embodiment (Krieger, 1999) to self-definitions ultimately influencing health and functioning. Both concepts of embodied ageism are accurate. Following Krieger's explanation of embodiment, embodied ageism can be broadly defined as “the biological expression of age-based social inequality,” yet this conceptualization doesn't include insight into the mechanisms by which embodied ageism appear to function. Thus, embodied ageism can be more specifically understood as “implicit ageist stereotypes internalized to such a degree that individual health is negatively affected” (Kenny, 2011).
Works Cited
Kenny, H. (2011). Ageism in America: An Important Public Health Issue. Aging In America. San Francisco: American Society on Aging.
Krieger, N. (1999). Embodying Inequality: A Review of Concepts Measures, and Methods for Studying Health Consequences of Discrimination. International Journal of Health Services , 29 (2), 295-352.
Levy, B. (2009). Stereotype Embodiment : A Psychosocial Approach to Aging. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 332-336.
The theory of stereotype embodiment proposes that the lifetime exposure to cultural messages of ageism leads to an internalization of the ageist construct (Levy, 2009). Once internalized, the construct becomes part of an implicit, subconscious set of beliefs about old age and older people. When the individual ages to the point where the internalized stereotypes are self-relevant, they become part of the self-perception that triggers behaviors and physiological responses that fulfill the self-concept of being “old.”
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Stereotype threat is a theory of discrimination response behavior that was first coined by Steele and Aronson (1995). The theory posits that under specific conditions involving explicitly revealed stereotypes, people will subconsciously act to fulfill those stereotypes, even when the outcome is detrimental. In order for the conditions of stereotype threat to be met, three elements must be in place:
1. The individual must face a situation where there is a stereotype-based expectation of performance 2. The individual must self-identify with the stereotyped group 3. The individual must believe that the “others” (observers, evaluators, etc) in the situation perceive the individual as a member of the stereotyped group
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Implicit Ageism
Ageism manifests both explicitly and implicitly, distinguished by intentionality. Explicit ageism occurs when there is a conscious awareness, intention or control in the thoughts, feelings or actions of an institution, law or person in regards to the treatment or consideration of an older adult. Conversely, implicit ageism includes thoughts, feelings and actions toward older adults that exist and operate without conscious awareness, intention or control (Levy & Banaji, 2004). It is believed that when a culture’s ageist stereotypes are internalized, they become part of a sub-conscious framework of society, which is expressed through implicit ageism (Levy, 2001).
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